Mental Workbench

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====== Elementy pasywne ======

===== Rezystory =====
{SYM}\\
[[wp>Resistor|Rezystor]] jest jednym z czterech podstawowych liniowych elementów elektronicznych. Zgodnie z prawem Ohma prąd płynący przez ten element jest wprost proporcjonalny do napięcia do niego przyłożonego i odwrotnie proporcjonalny do jego podstawowego parametru: rezystancji. Wartość rezystancji dla elementów nieregulowanych jest znormalizowana za pomocą [[wppl>szereg_wartości|szeregu wartości]]. Pod wpływem przepływającego prądu część energii elektrycznej zostaje zamieniona w ciepło i oddana do otoczenia. Ilość ciepła jakie rezystor może oddać do otoczenia jest ograniczona fizycznymi wymiarami obudowy. Podobnie wykonanie obudowy wpływa na maksymalne napięcie pracy elementu. Przekroczenie parametrów maksymalnych może uszkodzić element. Kolejnym parametrem rezystora jest TWR((Temperaturowy Współczynnik Rezystancji, w angielskim PTC-Positive Temperature Coefficient lub NTC-Negative Temperature Coefficient)), jest to parametr negatywny, rezystor powinien zachowywać stałe parametry podczas pracy, rezystancja nie powinna zależeć od temperatury. Rezystory cechują się również [[wp>Johnson–Nyquist_noise|szumami własnymi]] które wpływają na układy o dużej czułości.\\

^ Nazwa ^ Wzór ^
| Napięcie odkładające się na rezystorze | $U = I \cdot R$ |
| Moc wydzielana przez rezystor | <nowiki>$P = U \cdot I = {U^{2} \cdot R} = {I^{2} \over R}$</nowiki> |
| Energia wydzielona na rezystorze | <nowiki>$W=\int\limits_{t_1}^{t_2} v(t) \cdot i(t) dt$</nowiki> |
| Rezystancja zastępcza połączenia szeregowego | <nowiki>$R_Z=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n R_i$</nowiki> |
| Rezystancja zastępcza połączenia równoległego | <nowiki>$R_Z={(\sum\limits_{i=1}^n {{1} \over {R_i}}})^{-1}$</nowiki>|
| Rezystancja zastępcza połączenia | [[wppl>Gwiazda_(połączenie)]] |
| Rezystancja zastępcza połączenia | [[wppl>Trójkąt_(połączenie)]] |

Rezystor rzeczywisty od idealnego różni się: pojemnością i indukcyjnością pasożytniczą powstającymi pomiędzy ścieżkami przewodzącymi i wyprowadzeniami elementu. Parametry te nabierają znaczenia dla obwodów dużej i wielkiej częstotliwości. Schemat zastępczy (model reprezentujący rzeczywisty element za pomocą elementów idealnych):
{SCHEMAT ZASTEPCZY}\\

Parametry rezystancji oraz tolerancji rezystorów koduje się za pomocą [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_color_code|kodów barwnych lub cyfrowych]]. Czasami spotyka się rezystory oznaczone jako posiadające rezystancję 0, są to zworki jednak należy pamiętać że rzeczywista rezystancja to nie 0 ale ułamek Ohma (szczególnie w elementach SMD).

^ Parametr ^ Nazwa angielska ^ Jednostka ^ Komentarz ^
|Rezystancja|Resistance|Ohm [Ω]| Jest obarczona tolerancją [%] |
|Moc|Power| Watt [W] | Zależy od obudowy |
|Maksymalne napięcie pracy|Maximum working voltage| Wolt [V] |Zależy od obudowy |
|Temperaturowy współczynnik rezystancji (TWR) | Temperature coefficient | [<nowiki>$K^{-1}$</nowiki>] | |

Materiały dodatkowe: 
  * [[http://www.vishay.com/docs/28771/basics.pdf| Materiały firmy Vishay: Basics of Linear Fixed Resistors]]
  * [[http://www.vishay.com/docs/20020/smdmark.pdf| Materiały firmy Vishay: Surface Mount Resistor Marking]]
  * [[http://www.edw.com.pl/ea/rezystor.html| Praktyczne informacje o rezystorach - strona Elektronika (nie tylko) Analogowa]]
====  Węglowe ====
{{http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/ietron2/resistcarb.gif  }}__Carbon Film Resistor__ Najpopularniejsze i najtańsze rezystory. Zbudowane są z ceramicznego rdzenia z napylonym materiałem oporowym na bazie węgla do którego doprowadzone są metalowe wyprowadzenia, całość jest zaizolowana nieprzewodzącą powłoką.\\
Najszerzej dostępne są rezystory z szeregu E25 o tolerancji 5% (Zakres w zależności od producenta Około 0.5 - 22M [Ω]). Nominalne temperatury pracy dla tego typu elementów to -55 ÷ 155 [°C]. Maksymalne napięcia pracy wachają się od około 250 do 500 [V]. Najpopularniejsze moce znamionowe to:
^Powlekane ^^^^^^^
| Moc | [W]  | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1/2 | 1/4 |
| Średnica | [mm]  | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2.3 | 1.6 |
| Długość | [mm]  | 15 | 11 | 9 | 6 | 3.2 |
====  Metalizowane ====
====  Cienkowarstwowe ====
====  Drutowe ====
Rezystory drutowe produkuje się nawijając metaliczny przewodnik na cylindryczny izolator. \\
Plusami rozwiązania są:
  * Duża moc
  * Mała podatność na zmiany temperatury [[TWR]]
Natomiast wadami:
  * Duże rozmiary
  * Bardzo duża indukcyjność pasożytnicza całkowicie eliminująca możliwość zastosowania rezystorów drutowych w układach średnich i dużych częstotliwości.
====  Drabinki ====
====  Potencjometry ====
=== Montażowe ===
=== Trymery ===
Wieloobrotowe, Precyzyjne
=== Obrotowe i Suwakowe ===
== Liniowe ==
== Logarytmiczne ==
== Wykładnicze ==

===== Kondensatory =====

Polaryzacja kondensatorów SMD:
{{ http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Cap-elko-smd-polarity.jpg?nolink&500 |}}
====  Ceramiczne ====
====  Foliowe ====
====  Tantalowe ====
====  Elektrolityczne ====

===== Cewki =====
====  Dławiki ====

====== Półprzewodniki ======
===== Diody =====
{SCHEM}

Dioda (:EN: diode) to dwukońcówkowy, nieliniowy element elektroniczny przewodzący prąd w jednym kierunku. Obecnie diody produkuje się w technologi półprzewodnikowej
wykorzystując zjawisko [[złącza p-n]].

Dioda może znajdować się w stanach:
  * Przewodzenia (:EN: forward) (spolaryzowana w kierunku przewodzenia)
  * Zaporowym (:EN: reverse) (spolaryzowana w kierunku zaporowym)
  * Przebicia (:EN: breakdown) (spolaryzowana w kierunku zaporowym po przekroczeniu napięcia przebicia)

Diody posiadają dwie końcówki:
  * Anodę (:EN: anode) (gr. ἄνοδος  ana – "w górę", hodós – "ścieżka") prąd elektryczny normalnie wpływa (elektrony wypływają)
  * Katodę (:EN: cathode) (gr. κάθοδος  kata – „w dół”, hodós – „ścieżka”) prąd elektryczny normalnie wypływa
A więc dioda przewodzi prąd elektryczny od Katody -> Anody

{TYPOWA CH-KA}



Uwagi:
  * [[wp>Diode]]
  * [[wppl>Dioda]]
==== Prostownicze i uniwersalne ====

==== Elektroluminescencyjne ====
Inaczej [[#led|LED]].
==== Laserowe ====
Dioda laserowa (:EN: laser diode; :EN: ILD - injection laser diode ) lub laser półprzewodnikowy. Działa na takiej samej zasadzie jak LED.

Plusy:
  * Małe wymiary
  * Duże moce
  * Możliwość modulacji sygnału
  * Sterowanie źródłem prądowym (szybko się nagrzewa - zmienia się jej rezystancja)
==== Zenera ====
{{:integra:zener_sym.png?nolink| }}

Dioda Zenera (:EN: Zener diode) jest odmianą diody półprzewodnikowej której głównym parametrem jest napięcie przebicia złącza. Dla małych napięć polaryzacji zaporowej (5 ÷ 7 [V]) w diodzie zachodzi zjawisko
[[wp>Zener_effect|przebicia Zenera]], natomiast powyżej 7[V] istotną rolę odgrywa zjawisko [[wp>Avalanche_breakdown|przebicia lawinowego]] (:EN: avalanche breakdown).

Od klasycznej diody, diodę Zenera odróżnia:
  * Większa moc przy płynącym prądzie przebicia (nie powoduje uszkodzenia)
  * Ściśle określone napięcie przebicia
  * Stroma charakterystyka I(U) w obszarze przebicia
Dioda Zenera pełni funkcje:
  * Stabilizacji napięcia
  * Zabezpieczającą
  * Generacji szumu (generuje go przebicie lawinowe) w [[wp>Hardware_random_number_generator#Physical_phenomena_without_quantum-random_properties|sprzętowych generatorach liczb losowych]]

{{:integra:zener_char.png?nolink|}}\\
Dla polaryzacji przewodzącej (:EN: forward) dioda zenera zachoduje się tak jak zwykła dioda (zielony fragment charakterystyki). 
Natomiast dla polaryzacji zaporowej (:EN: reverse) (fragment niebieski):
  * Aż do osiągnięcia napięcia Zenera (:EN: breakdown voltage ;:EN: zener knee voltage) dioda posiada dużą rezystancję 
  * Po przekroczeniu napięcia Zenera następuje zjawisko przebicia i przez diodę zaczyna płynąć prąd, dioda wykazuje małą rezystancję

  * Typical tolerance: 5%
  * Typical power:

| 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 3 | 5 ^ [W] ^

  * Typical breakdown voltage values:

| 2V4 | 2V7 | 3V | 3V3 | 3V6 | 3V9 | 4V3 | 4V7 | 5V1 | 5V6 | 6V2 | 6V8 | 7V5 | 8V2 | 9V1 | 10V | 11V | 12V | 13V | 15V | 16V | 18V | 20V | 22V | 24V ^ [V]  ^
==== Schottky'ego ====
{SYMBOL}
Dioda Schottky'ego (:EN: Schottky diode; :EN: Hot Carrier Diode) jest rodzajem diody w którym zamiast złącza p-n zastosowano złącze metal-półprzewodnik. 

Charaktertzuje się:
  * Małą pojemnością złącza
  * Szybkim czasem przełączania (praca w [GHz])
  * Mały spadek napięcia w polaryzacji przewodzącej
  * Stosowana w zasilaczach impulsowych
==== Pojemnościowe ====
==== Tunelowe ====
==== Impulsowe ====
==== Mostki prostownicze ====
==== Transile ====



^ Parametr ^ Nazwa angielska ^ Jednostka ^ Komentarz ^
|$V_{RM}$|Stand-off voltage| | |
|$V_{BR}$|Breakdown voltage| | |
|$V_{CL}$|Clamping voltage| | |
|$I_{RM}$|Leakage current at $V_{RM}$| | |
|$I_{PP}$|Peak pulse current| | |
|$\alpha T$|Voltage temperature coefficient| | |
|$V_F$|Forward voltage| | |


Źródło: [[http://www.st.com/internet/com/TECHNICAL_RESOURCES/TECHNICAL_LITERATURE/DATASHEET/CD00000663.pdf|Nota katalogowa ST]]
Uwagi:
  * Nazwa TRANSIL jest znakiem towarowym firmy [[http://www.st.com|STMicroelectronics]]
==== Trisile ====
Elementy zabezpieczające tyrystory przed przepięciami.


Uwagi:
  * Nazwa TRISIL jest znakiem towarowym firmy [[http://www.st.com|STMicroelectronics]]
  * [[http://www.st.com/internet/com/TECHNICAL_RESOURCES/TECHNICAL_LITERATURE/APPLICATION_NOTE/CD00004007.pdf|TRANSIL™/TRISIL™ COMPARISON]] Nota aplikacyjna ST
===== Tranzystory =====
Tranzystor (:EN: transistor od :EN: **trans**conductance var**istor**) - obok RLC podstawowy element budujący każde urządzenie
elektroniczne zarówno cyfrowe jak i analogowe. W zdecydowanej większości zastosowań zastąpił lampy elektronowe.

Historia:
  * 1947 Bell Telephone Labolatories - John Bardeen i Walter Houser Brattain - tranzystor ostrzowy
  * 1948 Shockley - Teoria tranzystora złączowego (zbudowany w 1950)
  * 1956 Nagroda Nobla z fizyki dla Bardeen'a Brattain'a i Shockley'a
  * 1957 Shockley - tranzystor polowy JFET
  * 1959 Bell Telephone Labolatories -  John Atalla i Davon Kahng - tranzystor MOSFET

Podział ogólny:
  * bipolarne (BJT :EN: Bipolar Junction Transistor) (PNP oraz NPN)
    * z jednorodną bazą (dyfuzyjny) (:EN: TODO)
    * z niejednorodną bazą (dryftowy) (:EN: TODO)
  * unipolarne (polowe FET :EN: Field Effect Transistor)
    * złączowe (JFET :EN: Junction FET)
    * z izolowaną bramką (IGFET :EN: Insulated Gate FET lub MOSFET :EN: Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET)
    * z kanałem wzbogaconym (NC - normalnie zamknięty)
    * z kanałem zubożonym (NO - normalnie otwarty)
  * specjalne

====  Bipolarne ====
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id="tspan5222">NPN</tspan></text> <text x="393.62054" y="235.70334" id="text5224" xml:space="preserve" style="font-size:12px;font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;line-height:125%;letter-spacing:0px;word-spacing:0px;fill:#000000;fill-opacity:1;stroke:none;font-family:Sans"><tspan x="393.62054" y="235.70334" id="tspan5226">PNP</tspan></text> <g id="g5295"> <g id="g5185"> <path d="m 350,172.36218 a 20,20 0 1 1 -40,0 20,20 0 1 1 40,0 z" id="path4667" style="fill:#ffffff;fill-opacity:1;fill-rule:nonzero;stroke:#000000;stroke-width:1;stroke-linecap:square;stroke-linejoin:round;stroke-miterlimit:4;stroke-opacity:1;stroke-dasharray:none;stroke-dashoffset:0" /> <path d="m 325,159.36218 0,26" id="path5177" style="fill:none;stroke:#000000;stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;stroke-opacity:1" /> <path d="m 325,167.36218 10,-10 0,-15" id="path5179" style="fill:none;stroke:#000000;stroke-width:1px;stroke-linecap:butt;stroke-linejoin:miter;stroke-opacity:1" /> <path d="m 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Tranzystory bipolarne (:EN: BJT - bipolar junction transistor) to półprzewodnikowe, trojwyprowadzeniowe, nieliniowe elementy elektroniczne. 
Podstawową cechą tranzystora jest zdolność wzmacniania sygnału (sterowanie dużą energią poprzez mniejszą energię). Zbudowany jest z 3 warstw odpowiednio domieszkowanych półprzewodników.

Tranzystory bipolarne dzielimy ze względu na kolejność warstw półprzewodników:
  * PNP (strzałka emitera do wewnątrz)
  * NPN (strzałka emitera na zewnątrz)
  * [[wp>Heterojunction_bipolar_transistor|heterozłączowe]] (:EN: HBT - heterojunciton bipolar transistor)

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Poszczególne warstwy przewodnika są elektrycznie połączone z wyprowadzeniami i noszą nazwy:
  * Kolektor C (:EN: collector) silnie domieszkowana
  * Baza B (:EN: base) słabo domieszkowana
  * Emiter E (:EN: emitter)

Dzięki takiemu ułożeniu warstw tworzą się 2 [[złącza pn]]:
  * emiterowe (baza-emiter)
  * kolektorowe (baza-kolektor)

[[wppl>Tranzystor_bipolarny#Zasada_dzia.C5.82ania|Zasada działania]]

W uproszczeniu: Rezystancja złącza kolektor emiter zmienia się tak aby płynął przez nią prąd o wartości $I_C = I_B \cdot \beta$ (Gdzie β jest to parametr konkretnego tranzystora: wzmocnienie prądowe)

=== Stany pracy tranzystora: ===
^  stan pracy  ^  Polaryzacja złącza  ^^  Komentarz  ^
^ ::: ^  Emiterowego  ^  Kolektorowego  ^ ::: ^
| Aktywny (:EN: forward active) | przewodząco | zaporowo | Prąd kolektora jest proporcjonalny do prądu bazy o współczynnik β |
| Nasycenia (:EN: saturation) | przewodząco  | przewodząco  | Prąd bazy jest na tyle duży że nie jest możliwe dalsze wzmocnienie prądu kolektora. Napięcie $U_{BC}$ jest minimalne. |
| Odcięcia (:EN: cutoff) | zaporowo | zaporowo | Minimalny prąd kolektora. Złącze emiterowe spolaryzowane zaporowo (:EN: reverse biased ) (lub niespolaryzowane) |
| Inwersji (:EN: inverted; inverse; reverse) | zaporowo | przewodząco  | Złącze emiterowe spolaryzowane w kierunku zaporowym, kolektorowe w kierunku przewodzenia (:EN: forward biased ) |

=== Tryby pracy tranzystora ===
  * Wzmacniacz - pracuje w stanie aktywnym, wzmacnia sygnał 
  * Klucz (przełącznik) - pracuje naprzemiennie w trybie nasycenia i odcięcia, stosowany w układach cyfrowych i impulsowych

=== Konfiguracje pracy tranzystora: ===

  * WB (wspólna baza :EN: OB - common-base)
  * WC (wspólny kolektor :EN: OC)
  * WE (wspólny emiter :EN: OE) - wtórnik emiterowy

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=== Parametry pracy: ===

^ Parametr ^ Nazwa angielska ^ Jednostka ^ Komentarz ^
|Wzmocnienie prądowe $k_i$| | $[{mA \over mA}]$ |  |
|Wzmocnienie napięciowe $k_u$| | $[{V \over V}]$ | |
|Wzmocnienie mocy $k_p$| | $[{W \over W}]$ |
|Faza (przesunięcie fazowe pomiędzy Uwy a Uwe) | | [°] |
|Impedancja wejściowa $Z_{we}$| | [Ω] | |
|Impedancja wyjściowa $Z_{wy}$| | [Ω] | |
|Częstotliwość graniczna górna $f_g$| | [Hz] | |

^ Konfiguracja ^ $k_i$ ^ $k_u$ ^ $k_p$ ^ faza ^ $Z_{we}$ ^ $Z_{wy}$ ^ $f_g$ ^
| OE | duże $\beta$ | duże | największe :-) | 180 [°] :-) | stosunkowo mała | stosunkowo duża | najmniejsza  :-( |
| OC | największe $\beta+1$ | najmniejsze $1\le$ :-( | małe | 0 | największa :-) | najmniejsza | mała |
| OB | najmniejsze $\alpha<1$ | największe :-) | duże | 0 | najmniejsza :-( | największe | największa :-) |

=== Charakterystyki statyczne ===
  - wejściowa (:EN: input characteristic) $ \left. U_1=f(I_1) \right|_{U_2=const}$
  - wyjściowa (:EN: output characteristic) $ \left. I_2=f(U_2) \right|_{I_1=const}$
  - przejściowa (:EN: reverse voltage gain characteristic) $ \left. I_2=f(I_1) \right|_{U_2=const}$
  - zwrotna (:EN: forward current gain characteristic) $ \left. U_1=f(U_2) \right|_{I_1=const}$

Znając ch-ki we i wy możemy sami określić ch-ki: przejściową i zwrotną.

^ Konfiguracja ^ $I_1$ ^ $U_1$ ^ $I_2$ ^ $U_2$ ^
| OB | $I_E$ | $U_{EB}$ | $I_C$ | $U_{CB}$ |
| OE | $I_B$| $U_{BE}$ | $I_C$ | $U_{CE}$ |

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=== Tryby pracy: ===
  * statyczna (:EN: satic)
  * dynamiczna (:EN: dynamic)

=== Parametry h ===

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-port_network

=== Parametry graniczne ===

^ Parametr ^ Nazwa angielska ^ Komentarz ^
|$U_{EB0_{max}}$ | | maksymalne napięcie wsteczne baza-emiter|
|$U_{CB0_{max}}$ | | maksymalne napięcie wsteczne kolektor-baza|
|$U_{CE0_{max}}$ | | maksymalne napięcie kolektor-emiter|
|$I_{C_{max}}$ | | maksymalny prąd kolektora|
|$I_{B_{max}}$ | | maksymalny prąd bazy|
|$P_{strat_{max}}$ | | maksymalna dopuszczalna moc strat |

=== Uwagi: ===
  * [[http://elportal.pl/ea/bipolarne.html]]
  * [[http://pcbheaven.com/wikipages/Transistor_theory/]]
  * [[wp>Bipolar_junction_transistor]]
  * [[wppl>Tranzystor_bipolarny]]
  * [[http://users.ece.gatech.edu/~mleach/ece3050/notes/bjt/bjtsumm.pdf|Wszystkie wzory BJT OE]]
====  Unipolarne ====

===== Tyrystory i triaki =====
====  Tyrystory ====
====  Triaki ====
====  Diaki ====

===== Warystor =====
{{:integra:varistor_sym.png?nolink|}}\\

Warystor (:EN: varistor od **var**iable resis**tor**) jest nieliniowym elementem elektronicznym, rodzajem rezystora którego rezystancja zależy od przyłożonego do niego napięcia. 
Dla małych napięć rezystancja jest bardzo duża rzędu megaoma, natomiast dla niskich napięć rezystancja spada poniżej kilooma. 
Elementy te stosuje się w instalacjach przeciw przepięciowych (często związanych z wyładowaniami atmosferycznymi).

{{:integra:varistor_char.png?nolink|}}\\

Często budowany z węglika krzemu SiC (karborund) a jego działanie opiera się na zjawiskach zachodzących w kryształkach półprzewodnika 
zachodzących pod wpływem pola elektrycznego.

Zastosowanie:
  * Stabilizacja napięcia
  * Ochrona przed przepięciami
  * Ochrona styków przed iskrzeniem

Links:
  * [[http://www.vishay.com/docs/29079/varintro.pdf|Materiały Vishay dotyczące warystorów]]
====== Optoelektronika ======
=====  LED =====
====   Wyświetlacze 7 segmentowe ====
====   Bargraphy ====
=====  Wyświetlacze LCD =====
====   Tekstowe ====
====   Graficzne ====
=====  Transoptory =====
=====  Fotodiody =====
=====  Fototranzystory =====
=====  Fotorezystory =====

====== Elementy akustyczne ======
=====  Głośniki =====
=====  Mikrofony =====
=====  Przetworniki piezoceramiczne =====

====== Inne ======
=====  Kwarce =====
====  Filtry i generatory piezoelektryczne ====
=====  Kontaktrony =====
Kontaktron (:EN: reed switch) to prosty element elektromechaniczny. Pod wpływem pola magnetycznego dwie blaszki umieszczone w szklanej
obudowie łączą się umożliwiając przepłynięcie prądu.
Zastosowanie:
  * Czujnik włączenia maszyny
  * Czujniki otwarcia okien, drzwi itp.

Inne:
  * [[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhUt7VyMKT4|Jak się je produkuje]]
=====  Przekaźniki =====

==== Form ====

==== Solid State Relay ====
Przekaźniki półprzewodnikowe

=====  Transformatory =====
=====  Bezpieczniki =====
====   Polimerowe ====

====== Uwagi ======
Niektóre dane liczbowe pochodzą z katalogu Transfer Multisort Elektronik 2011